What Wild Animals Are Safe To Eat

Abstruse

Purpose

This study aims to appraise the household nutrient security status and explore the potency of wild edible animals equally a food source in the food insecurity–prone area of Bangkalan commune, Madura, Indonesia.

Approach/methodology/pattern

This cross-exclusive quantitative study used a mixed-method approach. A full of 66 participants were purposively recruited. Household food security was assessed using the brusque version of the U.Due south. Household Food Security Survey Module (US-HFSSM). A list of available wild edible animals was obtained from each interview using a structured questionnaire. For the qualitative study, an in-depth interview was conducted amid key informants at subvillage level.

Findings

We constitute that 33.four percent of households were food insecure. At to the lowest degree 18 kinds of wild edible animal protein consumed by the respondents were identified in the study area, which consisted of five kinds of insects, v kinds of fish, three types of birds, and ii mammals. Well-nigh of the wild edible animals were rich in protein.

Originality/value

Wild edible animals can be promoted to support household nutrient security. Villagers did not usually consider consuming wild edible animals every bit a normal practice equally there were concerns near the taste and condom of eating wild creature foods. Methods of processing and cooking foods to improve the sense of taste and safe aspects need to exist explored. The information obtained from this study adds more evidence related to the potential of edible wild animals as a food alternative for households in food-insecure areas.

Keywords

• Wild edible animals
• Culling food sources
• Nutrient insecure areas
• Indonesia

Citation

Adi, A.C., Andrias, D.R. and Rachmah, Q. (2020), "The potential of using wild edible animals as alternative food sources among food-insecure areas in Indonesia", Journal of Health Research, Vol. 34 No. 3, pp. 247-257. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHR-07-2019-0156

Publisher

:

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2019, Annis Catur Adi, Dini Ririn Andrias and Qonita Rachmah

License

Published in Journal of Wellness Research. Published past Emerald Publishing Express. This article is published nether the Creative Eatables Attribution (CC Past four.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this commodity (for both commercial and not-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The total terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/four.0/legalcode

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Introduction

Household food insecurity is a critical upshot equally it can touch the nutritional status of each individual in the household. Moreover, optimum nutritional status is required for the foundation of salubrious human development[i]. In accordance with national data, there has been an escalation of Indonesian people living in poverty ascension from xi.07 percent to 14.47 percent[2]. Specifically, the Indonesian nutrient insecurity atlas showed that all districts in Madura Island were included in a list of prioritized districts for provincial food security programs due to their insecurity status[3]. One of the underlying causes of food insecurity in Madura Isle is poverty which limits the economic access to nutrient sources. In the context of food insecurity, collecting wild foods tin can exist a class of coping strategies to increase concrete access to food. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) divers wild foods equally plants (including roots and tubers, leaves, vegetables, and fruits) and animals (including insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) which were non cultivated or reared, are underutilized, and are gathered for food[4].

Some wild and underutilized foods are a practiced source of vitamins, and some of them even have a higher vitamin and mineral content than cultivated plants[v-ix]. Wild foods accept been a significant contributor to household nutrient security through ii general pathways, by providing direct access to food and nutrients and by helping increment economical capability by selling the wild foods, which may then increment the household economic access to other foods. In southern Ethiopia, a study found that income earned from selling wild foods contributed significantly to fulfill the basic needs of poor households[10]. Similarly, in Amhara, Ethiopia, where seasonal food crises are common, the availability of wild fruits helps the community to fulfill their nutritional needs and likewise gives the potential for sale[eleven]. However, wild foods are usually considered equally inferior nutrient. In southern Sudan where giving prestigious foods to guests is mutual, sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) was given to male guests because information technology is considered more prestigious, whereas wild foods were given to women and children[12].

Unlike wild edible plants that have been documented largely in many studies, studies on wild edible animals are quite limited. Among edible animals explored in the previous studies, insects were most normally studied[xiii-15]. Nowadays, insects are promoted as a real animate being poly peptide alternative and have been perceived as environmentally beneficial compared to poultry and livestock[16]. Other research studies in Bangladesh found wild animal foods obtained from freshwater an important role of the poor community'due south nutrition. Small fishes, of less than x cms, and consumed with their bones, significantly contribute to calcium intake[17]. To our cognition, there is very little evidence showing the utility of wild edible animals in Indonesia. Some villagers recognized the use of wild animals by their elders; however, the practice was not much used in recent times. The poor in depression-income households in the food-insecure areas in Indonesia constantly needed any bachelor sources of poly peptide for their daily consumption. Therefore, wild edible animals are an obvious and sensible choice and sometimes a preferable i, too. This study aims to observe the level of household food insecurity and the possibility of adding wild edible animals to the nutrition aslope assessing the food and bioactive components of them.

Methodology

Setting

This cross-sectional study was completed in Bangkalan commune, located in the western part of Madura Island, East Java Province, Indonesia (Effigy 1). Bangkalan district was purposively selected by considering the highest number of poor households and the possibility of gathering wild edible animals. Two villages, namely, Blega village and Geger village, were randomly selected.

Sampling and data collection

This study used a mixed-method approach to collect the information. Quantitative research was conducted to assess household characteristics, nutrient security levels, and lists of available wild edible animals. Household food security status was assessed by using a short version of the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module (US-HFSSM) which was translated into the Indonesian linguistic communication. A total of 66 households from ii selected villages, Blega village and Geger village in Bangkalan district, were randomly chosen for quantitative research. Interviews were carried out by trained enumerators with a diet groundwork. In addition, a qualitative study was conducted using an in-depth interview with key informants including two village chiefs, 2 farmer grouping leaders, and 2 food security agency staff helpers at the subdistrict level.

Data direction and assay

Quantitative data were checked for their completeness, and then univariate analysis was performed for each variable. Quantitative data collected in this report included household characteristics (household members, number of children, age of household head, educational background, occupation, and household income), household nutrient security status, and coping strategies for food insecurity. Qualitative data were assessed through in-depth interviews in the form of recordings and images. In-depth interviews were carried out by a researcher using both the Madura and Indonesian languages and then transcribed into English. Before presenting the data, researchers double-checked for a not-English recording and an English version of the transcript. Transcription was then analyzed for the experience, practice, and potency of eating wild edible animals.

Ethical consideration

This study was ethically approved by the Wellness Research Ethics Committee, Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Airlangga (IRB number: 303-KEPK). Informed consent was obtained from all participants before the study was conducted.

Results

Household characteristics

The bulk of the households were a typical nuclear family consisting of a parent with their dependent children with an average of two from the median number of 4 (2–8). The hateful age of the household head was 47.nine ± fifteen.3 years, and that of the spouse was 43.7 ± 13.1 years. Almost household heads had a low educational background, 29.seven percent graduated from elementary school, 18.8 percent did not attend any formal education, and fifteen.half dozen per centum did not finish simple schoolhouse. Virtually household heads worked as farmers/fish farmers (37.5 per centum) and casual laborers (25.0 per centum) with a median income of Indonesian Rupiah (IDR) 395.000 (IDR 39.000 – ii.225.000) per capita per calendar month, equal to USD 27.24 (USD two.seven–153.5). Table I shows the results of household characteristics.

In that location was no meaning departure in household characteristics between households in Blega and Geger villages. However, the median household income was slightly higher in Blega than in Geger, which was probably influenced by the pedagogy levels of the household head which was slightly higher in Blega than in Geger, suggesting that better education enables the household caput to obtain a better occupation and salary.

Food security and coping strategy

Food security assessments using the US-HFSSM instrument found that 33.iv percent of households were food insecure (Tabular array Ii). The prevalence of household food insecurity found in other studies and in other areas in Indonesia was varied. During the economic crunch of 1999, just 20 percentage of households in Java Province were food secure while 80 percent were food insecure[12]. The latest reports showed that 58 of 398 rural districts in Indonesia were food insecure[13]. Furthermore, compared to other districts in East Java Province, Bangkalan was the second highest commune, where the pct of the population have lived below the poverty line since 2012–2013 (24.70 percent and 23.23 pct, respectively)[14]. It might explain the higher percentage of households that are vulnerable to food security. While an analysis by Usfar et al.[15] in two rural areas and 4 urban areas in Indonesia institute that merely 23 per centum of urban households and 16 percent of rural households were nutrient secure, a report from the Food Security Agency of Eastward Java Province in 2016 showed that 27.xvi percent of households were vulnerable to food insecurity and 12.69 per centum of households were food insecure[xvi]. The variation of food insecurity prevalence among diverse studies is probably influenced by the unlike instruments used to appraise the household nutrient security status and the time frame of the study.

Effigy two showed that in each hamlet, the coping strategy used was different. In Blega, most of the nutrient-insecure households adopt to purchase cheaper but less preferred foods (36.3 percent), whereas in Geger, they prefer to borrow food (42.8 percent). During periods of food insecurity, collecting and consuming wild foods tin can be used as one of the alternative strategies particularly if economic access to foods is an issue. However, this study plant that only seven.6 per centum of households collected wild foods as a coping strategy during periods of nutrient insecurity. Even in Geger village, which was constitute to exist more than nutrient insecure, in that location were no households that gathered wild foods during food insecurity periods.

During times of food insecurity and with express resources, consumption of animal source foods which are usually more expensive than constitute source foods is ofttimes reduced. Wild edible animals may provide an alternative source of animate being protein. During the report, nosotros identified xviii kinds of wild edible animals that had been consumed past the respondents in the study expanse, which consisted of five kinds of insects, eight kinds of fish and other freshwater species, 1 amphibian, 1 reptile, and three kinds of bird (Table 3).

Amid those wild edible animals, the nearly acceptable wild edible animals were from the fish and other freshwater animal groups due to the taste and ease of cooking. Fish was usually fried and was consumed as a side dish with rice and Indonesian chilly sauces (sambal). One nutritionist from the Public Health Center said

"Koncil fish (Channa striata) was bachelor in several places, however, some people said it tin electrocute and could be dangerous. Thus, it becomes inedible." (NI, 35 years one-time)

"Well-nigh fishes eaten in Geger area are sea fish that are sold by nutrient vendors every mean solar day, so we rarely consume freshwater fishes." (MW, 46 years one-time)

Other than fish, some kinds of edible insects were also consumed simply non as much every bit fish. Some respondents said that they did not consume insects because they were afraid of allergic reactions.

"Some insects could crusade itchy peel, including sarang tawon (Apis aculate), laron / White ants (Isoptera), and jangkrik / grasshopper (Melanoplus cinereus)." (MA, 55 years onetime)

Green frogs and monitor lizards were consumed only by certain people. Frogs were not culturally acceptable in the written report area because the bulk of the villagers were Muslims, and frogs were considered equally Haram nutrient (foods that should non be consumed due to religious reasons). Monitor lizards (biawak) were unremarkably considered as extreme foods, with some assertive that consuming the meat of a monitor cadger would help a man'due south virility. Some mammals were believed to piece of work equally a medicine for itchy skin, then they are notwithstanding consumed by some people.

"I don't know if information technology's truthful or non, just some men believe that consuming lizards can be beneficial for human'south virility." (SP, fifty years old)

"Tupai/Bu' (Scandentia) and Musang (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) usually used equally a traditional medicine to heal itchy peel, and information technology is prophylactic for children. Withal, the taste was not as well delicious, that is why we don't really swallow it." (SG, 48 years one-time)

Most of the wild edible animals were rich in protein. Identified using the Indonesian food composition data, the minimum protein content of edible wildlife was 11.viii grams found in small catfish (Keting) and the highest protein content was establish in weaver ants. Fish and other freshwater animals comprise approximately 12–24 grams of protein per 100 grams. Fish, mainly small fish, are ordinarily too rich in calcium and other micronutrients. However, most of those edible wild animals have seasonal availability. Freshwater fish, for example, can be found during the rainy season or around harvesting season, whereas birds are rare all year. This seasonality issue was raised past the respondents (9.1 per centum) equally one of the reasons backside the low utilization of those wild edible animals for daily consumption. The other reasons for not consuming edible wild animals included beingness less tasty than regular nutrient (21.2 percent), non certain of its safe (fifteen.2 percent), and the availability of substitutes, e.g., conventional foodstuffs (19.7 percentage). Even though the utilization was quite low, most of the respondents (85.9 per centum) did not consider consuming wild edible animals to exist a strange practise.

Discussion

Food security can exist divers equally "Westwardhen all people, at all times, have concrete, social and economical access to sufficient, safety and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and nutrient preferences for an active and healthy life". Household food security emphasizes iii bones elements, nutrient availability, food access, and food utilization. Availability refers to acceptable food for every person living in a specific area. Access means ensuring that everyone has sufficient resources to obtain foodstuffs (through production, purchase, or donation), and utilization ways the use of food for human metabolism[17]. The FAO in 2008 added one more dimension of food security besides availability, access, and utilization, namely, that of stability. Stability means that adequate food availability and access should be maintained in difficult times such as times of natural disasters, political upheaval, or economic instability that causes food instability[18].

Household food security is likewise related to coping strategies which tin can be defined every bit strategies adopted by households in response to food shortages[nineteen]. Coping strategies differ betwixt households in food-insecure areas. A study of rural households of the Magway commune of Myanmar, an agrarian rice-producing region, found the number of food-insecure persons was at threescore.8 percent (87.v percent in landless persons and 47.5 percent in farm household). 1 coping strategy adopted past nutrient-insecure households was to borrow rice (or take advance rice or wages) from the shop or farmers, and some other strategy was to eat low-quality rice; children were taken out from school to earn money for nutrient; several households migrated to overcome food insecurity; and finally, families would sell their productive assets[twenty]. A study in Sumenep, a northern part of Madura Island, Indonesia, describes several coping strategies used by households to survive. These included borrowing food or relying on the help of neighbors/friends, eating unpopular foods, limiting adults' food, and reducing the frequency of daily meals[21].

Another study amongst indigenous communities of Sierra Tarahumara in Mexico found that skipping meals was the well-nigh frequent coping strategy (56.x percent), followed past restricted consumption past adults then that small-scale children can eat (52.85 percentage) and limited portion size at mealtimes (49.59 percentage). This written report also institute that 5.69 percent of the households would gather wild food, chase, or harvest young crops while they faced food insecurity[22]. Supporting our results, a study in rural households in upland areas, Sekong province in Laos, found that gathering wild foods was the most common coping strategy used past households. At to the lowest degree 97 percent of the households collected wild food, which was not unremarkably sold. Several wild foods gathered by the households included edible insects, wildlife (wild pigs and small fishes), wild tubers, wild mushrooms, leafy vegetables, and bamboo shoots[23]. We as well found in our study that 7.6 percent of households nerveless wild foods equally a coping strategy for their food insecurity situation. The most used coping strategy was ownership cheaper but non start-pick food.

As noted earlier, a number of potential animal group food sources are used (Table III). Edible insects represent a rich source of protein for the improvement of human diets, especially for individuals suffering from poor nutrition because of protein deficiency[24]. Based on the interview results, amongst all of the edible insects, young bees' nests, young crickets, and weaver ant's eggs were the preferred insects, followed by grasshoppers and white ants fifty-fifty though they could cause an allergic reaction to those having hyper allergens. Ane of the reasons for the popularity is that young bees' nests, young crickets, and weaver ants' egg looks 'invisible' although eaten compared to grasshoppers and white ants. In addition, in the study area, white ants were more than commonly used equally animal feed. The practise of eating insects, also known every bit entomophagy, is common in Asia, Africa, and Due south America. A written report proved that insects are rich in not only poly peptide but too fats, essential amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, besides as micronutrients such as zinc, magnesium, copper, atomic number 26, selenium, phosphorus, manganese, vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin Eastward, and thiamin[25]. Since 1997, thousands of insects have been widely observed equally being edible; Young-Aree and Viwatpanich in 2005[26] reported 164 species in Lao people's democratic republic, Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam, while a college number of edible insects (549) were observed in United mexican states. In that location was no report identified in Indonesia related to edible insects. Therefore, this study tin can exist used as a contributor for further inquiry. Although there are nutritional benefits from eating insects, there can be some dangers. Co-ordinate to Belluco, et al.[27], due to the high nutrient content in insects, they tin can be a good medium for pathogens such as Salmonella, Camphylobacter, and Enterobacteriae that can endanger man health. Withal, expert storage and cooking methods tin can eliminate these issues.

Other than insects, fish and h2o-based animal foods are also used as wild edible animals in the Bangkalan district. Almost all fishes and freshwater life were preferred by the respondents but differed in seasonal availability. Marsh gourami/sepat fish, catfish/Keting fish, mutual snakehead/Koncil/Kutuk/Gabus fish, water snails/Kreco/Tutut, and freshwater shells/Remis (Corbicula javanica) were only bachelor in the rainy flavor, whereas common barb/Wader fish, Eel/belut, and pocket-sized freshwater crabs/yuyu are available in any season. Seasonal avilability afflicted the consumption amid respondents. Co-ordinate to Focus Group Discussion (FGD), some of the respondents believed that the Common snakehead/Koncil/Kutuk/Gabus fish could electrocute them. In fact, it is a nutrient taboo that is not truthful. The common snakehead does not crusade electrocution; however, its shape does look like the electric catfish (Malapteruridae) that tin cause electrocution. Educational activity of the differences might be benign to help increase edible wild fish consumption. Fish is a major source of protein, and some fish species incorporate omega-3 fatty acids that are essential for growth and evolution and play an important office in the prevention and handling of noncommunicable diseases. Fish is also high in poly peptide equally a portion of fish (50 grams) contains 10 grams of poly peptide.

Compared to insects and h2o animals, the other groups of edible animals (mammals, reptiles, and birds) are consumed less ofttimes considering they are harder to discover. Some respondents said that they have to hunt in the forest to detect those wild animals. Some of them also said they hunted animals if required for medical reasons. For example, Tupai/Bu' (Scandentia) and Musang (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) are consumed as a traditional medicine to treat allergies (itchy skin). However, in that location is no previous scientific study to explain any benefits.

Nutrient civilization is an important factor that influences the acceptance of nutrient in a community. Food will be more easily accepted if it follows the concepts believed past the community regarding what is considered "edible"[19]. Taste and safety are two factors that tin be improved to promote the utilization of edible wild fauna, mainly in food-insecure households. Ahmed and Lorica[28] stated that increasing the utilization of fauna foods is a potential mode to ameliorate household food security status, and according to Bouis[29], this authorization can exist achieved through three pathways: (1) adoption–income linkages, which is the potential to increase income from selling the wild edible animals, which tin bear upon the comeback of nonstaple nutrient consumption because these kinds of food are yet elastic to income; (2) adoption–employment linkages, which are collecting wild edible animals as an alternative productive activity (employment), which may outcome in the adequacy of obtaining an income; (3) adoption–consumption linkages, which is direct access for household consumption.

There were several issues that could arise with the practise of consuming wild edible animals. For case, if the wild fauna became an endangered species, and then hunting and poaching go illegal. Also, there will exist issues of zoonotic disease increase due to an increase in wild animal consumption. Based on our observations, none of these issues were raised in this study area. The Indonesian Ministry building of Environment and Forestry under rule No P.xx/MENLHK/SETJEN/KUM.1/half-dozen/2018 mentioned the blazon of plants and animals that are protected past the state, and none of the wild animals found in this study were included[thirty]. Similarly, the run a risk of zoonotic transmission was not found in our pick of wild edible animals. Cantlay, et al.[31] stated that potential zoonotic viral pathogens from wildlife mostly came from wild animals under the family of Suidae, Cervidae, Sciuridae, Viverridae, Caprinae, Pteropodidae, Hystricidae, Ursidae, Cercopithecidae, Felidae, Manidae, Elephantidae, Squamata, Testudines, Crocodylia, and Galliformes. Also, based on our analysis, at that place were no reports of infection caused past the practise of consuming wild fauna.

Conclusions

In nutrient insecurity–decumbent areas, consuming wild edible animals can be useful as a coping strategy. Notwithstanding, this study shows that the practice of consuming wild edible animals was all the same low due to several reasons such equally seasonal availability, gustatory modality, rubber, poor information regarding proper cooking methods, nutrient content, health benefits, as well equally religious beliefs and aversion to "weird" practices. Based on our analysis, we conclude that several animals were available throughout the year that are rich in protein and easy to cook, i.e., common barb, eel, small freshwater venereal and snails. Promoting the practice of consuming wild edible animals is now required to increase the awareness of this useful practice.

Figures

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Effigy 1

Bangkalan district, located in the western part of Madura Island, East Coffee Province, Indonesia

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Effigy ii

Coping strategies used past households in Bangkalan commune, Madura island, Indonesia (Northward = 66)

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to give thanks the Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Airlangga for funding this research, the enumerators, and the participants in the study.The authors declare that in that location is no disharmonize of interest in this study.

Corresponding author

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